Introduction

The subject of this report is the most recent effort to locate the remains of two famous ships of the American Civil War, the C.S.S. Florida and the U.S.S. Cumberland. Largely forgotten for the nearly 120 years after the ships sank, the National Underwater and Marine Agency (NUMA) revived interest in the two vessels in 1980. In the summer of that year, NUMA performed a magnetometer survey and in conjunction with the Virginia Research Center for Archaeology (VRCA) conducted a physical search for the wrecks in the James River off lower Newport News with negative results. The following year NUMA contracted with Underwater Archaeological Joint Ventures (UAJV) to attempt once again to locate and, if possible, identify the sunken vessels. On behalf of NUMA, UAJV applied to the Virginia Marine Resources and Historic Landmarks Commissions for a permit to conduct a Phase I archaeological survey in the James River. The permit was granted in June 1981 and UAJV commenced search and survey activities during the same month.

Historical Background

U.S.S. CUMBERLAND

Built at the Boston Navy Yard and launched in May 1842, the Cumberland's distinguished career encompassed nearly three decades during most of which she served as flagship of the Home, Mediterranean, or African squadron, In April of 1861 she was towed out of the Gosport Navy Yard when the Union forces burned and abandoned the Norfolk facility in anticipation of its seizure by the Confederates.

In the early part of 1862 the Cumberland was stationed off Camp Butler in Newport News, Va. as part of the Union squadron blockading the James River. In 1856 she had been brought to the New York Navy Yard where she was razeed and her armament refitted. At the time of her final encounter she was carrying a 70 lb. rifle, a 10 in. smoothbore Dahlgren pivot gun both fore and aft, and a broadside battery comprising twenty-two 9 in. Dahlgrens.

The sinking of the Cumberland on March 8, 1862 was one of the more dramatic moments of the Civil War (see Fig. 1). Her captain was absent that day, presiding at a court martial on board the U.S.S. Roanoke, and the command devolved upon the executive officer, Lt. George U. Morris. That the battle with the Merrimac would really be no contest became apparent when the Confederate ship's guns raked the deck of the U.S.S. Congress, inflicting severe-casualties, and the return fire failed to penetrate, or even seriously damage, the ironclad's armor.

The Merrimac's captain asked Morris to surrender, to which he replied "Never! I'll sink alongside!" and gave orders to commence firing. The ironclad steamed directly towards the Cumberland and rammed her in the forward starboard quarter. The Merrimac backed off, breaking her recently extended prow in the process. The pnion ship lurched and her main deck began to sink beneath the waters of the James River, but not before she had fired a series of broadsides, killing or wounding nineteen men and causing more damage to the ironclad than she sustained at any other time in her combat career. Within a short time the Cumberland had settled on the river bottom with only her flag and mainmast top still visible above the waves.- Over 120 members of her brave crew accompanied the proud warship on this final descent.

C.S.S. FLORIDA

Less than two years later and only a short distance upstream of the sunken remains of the Cumberland, another famous casualty of the Civil War came to rest on the bottom of the James River.

First of the foreign built Confederate commerce raiders (see Fig. 2), the C.S.S. Florida began, often pursued, and ended her career amidst a flurry of international controversy. She was constructed in secret during 1861-62 in Liverpool, England under the name Oreto, a ruse intended to help persuade the English authorities, who could not by law permit the outfitting of warships for belligerent powers, that she was intended for service in the Italian navy.

The commerce raider was designed to operate under both sail and steam and was fitted with a retractable screw to provide greater speed when cruising on wind power alone. A British dispatch gunboat was used for the basic hull model. The Foreign Enlistment Act prohibited the British from supplying the Florida with guns and ammunition within their territorial waters, but when these were subsequently furnished in the Caribbean in August 1862 the raider's battery consisted of six 6 in. and two 7 in. Blakely rifles and one 12 lb. Howitzer.

The Confederate ship was launched in March 1862 and sailed to the Bahamas where John Newland Maffitt assumed command, surreptitiously loaded guns and ammunition, and officially christened the vessel as the Florida on August 17. Since an outbreak of yellow fever had reduced the numbers of the already undermanned crew and as a result of the failure to secure some of the equipment required to fire the guns, the captain considered it essential to reach a Confederate port. He consequently made the bold decision, to dun the Union blockade in Mobile Bay, a feat which would have been difficult under any circumstances, but one made all the more dangerous by the raider's inability to defend herself. Nevertheless, Maffitt succeeded in reaching Mobile with only minor damage to the ship and relatively few casualties among the crew.

After making the necessary acquisitions, repairs, and personnel changes, Maffitt managed to elude the blockaders on his way out of the bay in January 1863 and began to prey on Union merchant shipping. The Florida's first cruise was highly successful, capturing twenty.-five merchant-ships including the Jacob Bell and the Oneida, whose cargo values were estimated at a million and a half and one million dollars, respectively. Two of the captured vessels were given prize crews and operated as 'satellites' or 'outfits' of the Florida. Their activities resulted in the conversion of another prize to a satellite and the three outfits together accounted for an additional twenty-two ship seizures.

By August 1863, the Florida's hull and engines were in need of a major overhaul. Maffitt wanted to have the work done in an English facility, but the international political situation was such that this could not be done anytime soon, so he elected to put into the French port of Brest. The captain estimated that the repairs would only take about eighteen days, but, because of a series of complications, the Florida wasn't able to set sail for over five months. During this time Maffitt's health deteriorated to the point that he had to ask to be relieved. His replacement, J. N. Barney, also became too ill to continue and the command was assigned to Lt. Charles M. Morris.

Morris and his largely new and inexperienced crew launched the Florida on her second cruise in February 1864. They succeeded in avoiding the U.S.S. Kearearge, which had been stalking the raider for several months (much to the consternation of the French authorities), by waiting until the Union ship had to put into another port to re-supply. (The Kearsarge subsequently gained fame by sinking the most famous of the Confederate commerce raiders-and sister ship to the Florida, the C.S.S. Alabama, off the coast of France). The second cruise was not nearly as successful as the first. The fact that only thirteen prizes were captured may be attributed to the fact that there were considerably fewer; ships of American. registry at sea in 1864 than in 1863.

The Florida's career ended in October 1864 when she was rammed and hijacked by the U.S.S. Wachussett in the South American port of Bahia in defiance of Brazilian neutrality. The Confederate vessel was towed out of the harbor and taken to Hampton Roads, Virginia where she sank under mysterious circumstances on the morning of November 28, 1864, most probably the result of a deliberate attempt on the part of the Union high command to stifle the international furor which had been created by the Florida's abduction from a neutral port.

Remote Sensing

In the spring of 1981 members of UAJV began contacting local watermen in hopes of gaining information about shipwrecks in the Hampton Roads area. Most of the watermen we spoke with were cooperative and one in particular, Wilbur Riley of Hayes, Virginia, claimed to know the location of the U.S.S. Cumberland. In the evening of June 22 Mr. Hiley guided us, without the benefit of any instrumentation, to within 15 yards of what appeared to be a 19th century warship located off Pier C approximately 1.4 miles northwest of Newport News Point.

Based on the information gathered during the 1980 magnetometer survey as well as from historical research conducted by NUMA, UAJY, and Dr. Chester Bradley, a remote sensing survey was performed in the area indicated in Fig. 3 subsequent to our brief investigation of the Pier C site.

The survey instrument employed was a 200 Khz Sitex 256 He straight line recording fathometer. Survey lanes were run perpendicular to shore with lane spacing of approximately 50o. Target locations were recorded with Loran C latitude and longitude (for crew reference), visual sightings, and compass bearings (Fig. 4 & 5). Only two major targets were detected during the survey (Fig. 6 & 7), one-off Pier, C (NN 73) corresponding to the wreck shown to us by the local waterman and the other lying approximately 600 yards upriver of the first, offshore of Horne Brothers' shipyard (NN 72).

Environment

Adverse physical conditions in the survey area posed significant problems for diving and systematic recording on both sites. The size and prevalence of ship traffic in the Newport News channel created serious diving hazards and caused the displacement or loss of many buoys and lines on the two wrecks (Fig. 11). As a result, much time and effort was expended in the relocation of sites and the reestablishment of mooring and guide lines.

Depth, currents, and poor visibility also hampered the on-site work. Because both wrecks lie at depths in excess of 63 ft., no decompression repetitive bottom times were restricted to a maximum of 1 hour and 20 minutes a day per diver. Currents occasionally achieved velocities greater than 2 knots and visibility was seldom in excess of 1o 6".

On Site Methodology

Once the Horne Brothers site was located, a mooring line was set, anchored by a 150 lb. iron clunk from which exploratory search lines were extended. As significant features were encountered, gutter spikes were used to secure search lines so that features could be easily relocated. When the perimeter of the intact hull was found by running a line . perpendicular to the deck planking, we attempted to follow the hull as far as possible through probing.

A 100' baseline was established parallel to the hull, 20' inshore of the wreck. The baseline was used to triangulate the positions of six nails which we had secured to the intact hull at various intervals. The nails were in turn used as base points from which all features located within the hull could be triangulated (see site plan, Fig. 8). This two-step method of triangulation was employed in order to reduce the length of tape measure pulls, thereby maximizing the accuracy of our measurements.

Features observed and recorded on the Horne Brothers site include: a 121 ft. section of hull on the inshore side composed of 6J x 7 in. frames, 3 in. ceiling and 5 in. outer planking; a 16 ft. section of hull on the offshore side; a small scuttle in the deck with a 13 in. inner diameter; a large iron object 11 ft. x 5 ft. 6 in. consisting of two adjacent cylinders which may be boilers; and directly inshore of this,-a copper alloy through fitting 4J in. inner diameter, possibly an intake valve for the boilers. Among the other observed and recorded features are 2 hatchways, 2 ft. 8 in. and 5 ft. wide, fore and aft respectively of a massive, flat, circular iron object 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter.

Most of the objects recovered from the Horne Brothers site were recorded simply in reference to their general provenience. Those artifacts considered to be most significant in terms of diagnostic or historical value were triangulated to from points on the hull perimeter.

Many of the features located on the Horne Brothers site suggest that the wreck does, in fact, represent the remains of the C.S.S. Florida. The length of the Florida was 191 ft. from stem to stern with a beam of 27 ft. The length of intact wreckage is in excess of 135 ft. with scattered hull debris continuing both fore and aft. The 23 ft. width of the wreckage as measured on a deck level below the waterline (indicated by copper sheathing attached to the outer planking) compares favorably with the beam of the Florida's main deck.

The presence of what appears to be engine apparatus as well as the rigging equipment (see artifacts section) observed on the site further suggests that this vessel was a sail/steamer such as we know the Florida to have been. Finally, an interesting (though at this point inconclusive) piece of evidence concerns planking samples recovered from the wreck which preliminary analysis indicates are made of mahogany. An eyewitness to the salvage work which was undertaken on the Florida after the war reported that fragments retrieved from the ship's gunwale were constructed out of the same type of wood (West, 1977, p. 153).

The factor which contributed most significantly to our ability to gather information from the Horne Brothers site was the vessel's relatively good state of preservation and accessibility. The wreck lies on a more or less even keel with a slight offshore list. There was very little sedimentary overburden in most of the areas we examined with the exception of the upriver end which appears to be largely submerged beneath the river bottom. The essentially undisturbed condition of the site is consistent with what we know of the Florida's peaceful demise on the morning of November 28, 1864.

Quite the opposite was true with the Pier C site, however. Listing at about a 35 degree angle downstream, the wreck appears to have sustained considerable damage as well as having been covered with an unnatural sediment deposition in some areas. Although this situation and the limited amount of time we were able to spend examining the wreck made it impossible to construct a comprehensive site plan, the condition of the site does correspond to the documented reports concerning the Cumberland's violent end, the destructive salvage efforts, and the dumping of large quantities of spoil over the wreck site (e.g. West, 1977, p. lss). Significant features observed on the site include the shaft of a large iron anchor, intact decking, and a long section of bilge pump pipe.

Following the completion of all on-site work, the positions of buoys marking known locations on both sites were shot in from land based transits during slack tide (Fig. 9). Divers tightened up excess play in the buoy lines in order to further minimize error during the transit operations. (Fig. 10)

Artifacts - Pier C Site

Small Arms

Artifacts recovered from Site NN 73 related to the use of small arms include: a Model 1844 brass federal naval cutlass hilt found in two pieces (PC/SC/9, Fig. 12B), a single ringed .38 caliber pistol bullet (PC/SC/11), a standard three-ringed .69 caliber rifled musket bullet (PC/SC/18, Fig. 12A), and a brass object discovered in two pieces consisting of 1J in, diameter tangential circles in linear series thought to have been part of a rifle rack (PC/SC/8).
(more)

Heavy Ordnance

Objects related to the use of heavy ordnance include . two cannon fuses (PC/SC/10, Fig. 12C), a wooden sabot (PC/SC/7, Fig. 15), and a pair of gunners calipers (PC/SC/5, Fig. 13 & 14). The fuses are 2~ in. long and are identical in shape to a type which is described as being marked on the head with the letters "ORD. D." (Ordnance Department), an anchor, and a date between 1857 and 1864 (Ripley, 1970, p. 275 Fig. XII-45). Concreted corrosion products presently obscure the face of these fuse heads; it will be interesting to see if the markings are found, after mechanical cleaning, to correspond to those of the reference cited.

The sabot is a cylindrical object 3 in, high and 9 in. in diameter, composed of a single block of wood with a flat lower surface and a concave upper one. Its purpose was to- insure, insure, through its use in conjunction with metal straps, that a shell would be seated in the bottom of a cannon bore with the fuse facing towards the muzzle, thus preventing explosion in the tube.

The gunners calipers are composed of two strips of sheet brass connected at one end by a brass rivet. The two pieces together comprise a graduated circle around the pivot point which furnishes a diameter measurement in inches when the calipers are fitted around a projectile or cannon bore. The instrument was apparently deposited in the closed position, thus affording protection to the interior surfaces of the circular head from physical and galvanic corrosion and providing for the preservation of the inscribed words "Shat Dial" as well as many of the numbers and calibration marks. Calipers of this type normally had steel points (ordnance Manual, 1862) but they are absent from this specimen, probably as a result of having been electrolytically sacrificed to the nobler brass.

The functions of a copper alloy pan (PC/SC/13, 6 5/8 x 3 1/2 x 3,in.) with four corners as well as that of a larger tri-cornered one (PC/SC/12, 1 ft, x 6 in, x 3 1/2 in,) in which the former was found have thus far not been determined (Fig. 17 & 18). However, impressed markings on the exterior surfaces of the rounded bottoms of both vessels provide valuable information concerning identification and dating.

Those on the larger pan indicate that this one, at least, was intended for use in an ordnance related capacity. The inscriptions are as follows: PC/SC/13, "USNY 30"; PC/SC/12, "USNY, 1856 Ord. Dept. J.A.D. 32".

Naval Issue, Personal, and Shipboard Items

The only artifact recovered which may relate to naval apparel is a small, ovular, and rather corroded piece of thin corrugated brass which is thought to be part of an epaulet (PC/SC/17, Fig. 12D).

A broken piece of mirror glass set into a small wooden rectangle,-7j in, x 6 in, x 1 in., represents what appears to be the sole personal possession in the assemblage (PC/SC/15, Fig. 16). The glass fits into a shallow recess in the wood which was obviously cut according to the odd dimensions of this specific fragment.

Among several white ironstone plate shards which were retrieved from Site NN 73, one, a piece which includes portions of both the rim and base, is of particular significance (PC/SC/12). The bottom contains the manufacturer's name, John Alcock, and his mark, a crowned shield flanked by a lion on the left side and a unicorn on the right (Fig. 19). Our research indicates that John Alcock operated the Staffordshire Potteries in England between the years 1853 and 1861 (Godden, 1964, p, 27).

Perhaps the most dramatic of all the artifacts recovered from this wreck is a large copper alloy ship's bell (PC/SC/14, Fig. 20), Standing 1 ft. 6 in, high with an outer base diameter of 19 in,, it does not contain a clapper which, if constructed of iron (as was usually the case), may have corroded in favor of the copper alloy bell material surrounding it. Twelve raised tinge were cast on the middle portion of the exterior surface, but the bell appears to bear no other intentional markings.

Dating and Identification

The dated copper alloy pan provides a tentative 'terminus poet quern' of .1856. Considered along with the Alcock plate fragment and the Civil War period armament related artifacts, it seems likely that most, if not all, of these, items derive from the original wreckage and do not represent intrusive elements on the site.

The high proportion of armament related artifacts in the assemblage, the styles of the cutlass hilt and cannon fuses, and the inscriptions on the pang all further suggest the presence of a federal naval vessel. The 9 in. diameter of the wooden sabot may be particularly significant, corresponding as it does to the bore of the greatest part of the Cumberland's battery.

Artifacts - Horne Brothers Site

Fasteners, Fittings, and Rigging

Most of the fasteners collected from the site consist of copper colts flattened at both ends, ranging in length from 10 5/8 in. to 16 3/4 in. and in diameter from 5/8 in. to 1 in. (e.g. HB/SC/16,21, Fig. 21).These bolts, some of which still retain a washer at each end, were uses to secure inner and outer planking to the ship's frame structure. Another type of fastener observed on the site is represented by a brass nail (HB/SC/34, Fig. 21B) 6 in. long; its specific function is presently unknown but it may have served to secure fixtures to decking or deck planks to deck beams.

Among the ship's fittings recovered are an odd shaped copper alloy object with six 3i8 in. diameter countersunk fastening holes, possibly a chafing bit (HB/SCi34, Fig. 22), and part of a brass trim ring (HB/SC/31) discovered lying adjacent to the intact scuttle (see site plan, Fig, 8). Of particular interest is a bucket shaped artifact only 5 3/4 in, high and 6 15/16 in, across the open end with copper alloy sides and a 3/8 in, thick glass bottom (HH/SC/20, Fig. 23); it has been identified as a porthole, similar to ones which may still be observed aboard the U.S.S. Constitution in Boston.

Smaller fittings in the assemblage include what appears to be a small rail base (HB/SC/37), several types of hinges (HB/SC/53,54,55, Fig. 24), a hoop 13 in, in diameter constructed out of a hollow copper alloy tube attached to a brass hinge (HB/SC/3), and a small rectangular box with two open aides and a short lip running along the outer edge of one of the long sides (HB/SC/19).

Objects related to the ship's rigging consist of a small (21 in, diameter) sheave (HB/SC/50), part of an unsheathed pulley (HB/SC/38), and both a single and double block (HB/SC/40, 35, Fig. 25). The sheaths of the latter two are constructed of four and seven separate pieces of wood, respectively, and the double block still contains fragments of rope around its sheaves.

Liquor Bottles, Drinking and Serving Vessels

Several liquor bottles considered by their size and shape to have once held whiskey (HB/SC/2) and champagne and/or wine (HB/SC/46, 32) were retrieved intact from the wreck (Fig. 27), One was discovered lying inside an open box on the outside of which the printed letters "C H A _ ` _ _ _, R E G A L A, 100" could be faintly discerned (see Fig. 26), A base and fragments of one or more case bottles which may have carried either liquor or some medicinal liquid were also collected (HB/SC/13, 15, Fig. 27A) .

The assemblage additionally comprises a variety of drinking and serving vessels (see Fig. 27). The former group consists of a glass goblet base (HB/SC/7), an intact ceramic cup (HB/SC/59), and two ceramic cup fragments (HB/SC/5,6). Serving utensils are represented by a thick white ironstone fragment thought to be part of a platter (HB/SC/56) and a 13 in, high pewter pitcher (HB/SC/23, Fig. 28); upon recovery it was discovered that a wooden rod lay inside, having been driven (whether purposely or accidentally is unknown) through: the bottom, of the pitcher.

Apothecary Vessels

The half dozen intact glass apothecary bottles in the assemblage display a variety of sizes and forms (see Fig. 29). Dimensions range from 1 3/4 in. (HB/SC/12) to 7 in. high (HB/SC/36) and from as narrow as 1 1/16 in. (HB/SC/28) to as wide as 2 3/4 in. (HB/SC/36) base diameter. A diversity of stoppers is also apparent, comprising several glass types (HB/SC/10,11,30) as well as a cork still in place at the mouth of the smallest vial (HB/SC/12). One bottle, with its glass stopper firmly set, still retains the yellow liquid contents which have remained undisturbed for nearly 120 years (HB/SC/29, Fig. 29A).

Two white ceramic pharmaceutical vessels are of particular interest. One is a mortar, 2J in, high with a small lip in the rim for resting a pestle (HB/SC/4, -Fig. 29B), This artifact is very similar, perhaps identical, to one presented in The Civil War Collector's Encyclopedia (Lord, 1966, pg. 165). The other, a small jar 2J in, high and 1 1/4 in. in diameter, i9 of special significance (Hk3/SC/24, Fig. 30), The seal of the Paris School of Pharmacy, the name of the druggist, and his business address in Brest are all printed in red on the vial's exterior.

Armament

An assortment of military and naval paraphernalia, mostly related to the use of small arms, was also retrieved from Site NN 72. Articles associated with thrusting weapons include a leather sword scabbard, 1 ft. 11 in. long with a brass tip (HB/SC/1, Fig. 31), and a 4 1/4 in, multi-ribbed braes bayonet handle (HB/SC/52, Fig. 32A).

Items related to firearms are represented by a small pistol butt plate (HB/SC/48, Fig, 32B) and a "variety of small projectiles. All of the bullets were contained in two adjacent boxes which were also recovered . The box lids had either completely deteriorated or were washed away, but. the sides and bottoms remained relatively intact. The first box, 6 1/2 in, x 6 7/8 in, x 4 1/2 in, (HB/SC/42), contained five sizes. of lead round shot with measured diameters of approximately .309, .350, .377, .466, and .639 in. (HB/SC/41, Fig. 33 & 34). The second box (HB/SC/44, Fig. 35) held 418 blunt tipped .56 caliber lead Enfield bullets, most of which still retained a wooden plug recessed into the back end of the bullet to help it expand into the rifling of the barrel after firing. (HB/SC/ 45). Pieces of round shot corresponding to three of the caliber types identified from the first container were also discovered with the Enfield bullets, but these are believed to have spilled over from the former as a result of the deterioration of the top and aides of both boxes.

The sole recovered artifact connected with the use of ordnance is a 1 5/8 ft, long brass and lead cannon fuse with a hexagonal head (HB/SC/ 49, Fig, 32C). It has been identified as a type which was inserted in shells intended for use in Blakely rifles.

Personal Gear

Two leather items, a small strap with a retaining band (HB/SC/51) and a right shoe (HB/SC/33, Fig.36), constitute the only artifacts relating to personal gear or apparel which were collected from the site. The shoe is 10 3/4 in, in length, has eight brass or copper eyelets, and conforms in style to the "Jefferson Pattern" used by both sides during the war (Lord, 1965, p. 310).

Dating and Identification

The forms and styles of the liquor and apothecary bottles and vessels, arms and ammunition, and drinking and 'serving vessels are all consistent with dates corresponding to the Civil War period or the years immediately preceding it.

The British-manufactured Enfield bullets were used by both sides during the War, but more so by the Confederacy which had a greater dependency on the importation of English arms and munitions. More specifically, the Blakely cannon fuse calls to mind the Florida's battery which comprised mostly guns of this type, and the small white ceramic jar is further reminiscent of the commerce raiders lengthy stay in Brest.

Summary

In the summer of 1981 the National Underwater and Marine Agency contracted with Underwater Archaeological to 3 Joint Ventures to survey an area of the James River off lower Newport News which, research indicated, contained the wrecks of two famous Civil War vessels. The purpose of the project was to locate and, if possible, identify the remains of the highly successful Confederate commerce raider Florida, a sail/steamer which quietly sank under mysterious and controversial circumstances on Nov. 28, 1864, and the Union warship Cumberland, which was rammed and sunk by the ironclad Merrimac (C.S.S. Virginia) on March 8, 1862, thus becoming the first victim in the advent of the age of modern naval warfare.

With the assistance of a local waterman and through the use of electronic remote sensing equipment, the UAJY team succeeded in locating two shipwreck sites within the survey area, one off the Virginia Port Authority's Pier C (NN 73) and one off the Horns Brotherte Shipyard Pier (NN 72). The locations of the two sites corresponds, respectively, to the positions of the Cumberland and the Florida as described by a contemporary observer of the salvage efforts which were undertaken on the vessels after the Civil War.

Observations regarding the condition of the wrecks as they lie on the river bottom are also consistent with historical documentation concerning the demise and subsequent salvage activities conducted on the two ships. Recorded dimensions and hull features of the Horns Brother's site compare favorably with the plane and propulsion characteristics of the Florida; likewise, the less extensive examination of the Pier C site suggests its identity as that of the Cumberland although any conclusion based on structural evidence must be considered more tentative at this time.

Data derived from specific artifacts recovered from the Pier C site indicates the presence of a Union warship with a date of sinking after 1856; the assemblage as a whole suggests usage and deposition in the 1850os or 1860oe. Artifacts retrieved from the Horns Brother's site provide evidence of a similar time frame. Several armament-related items are generally associated more often with the Confederate rather than the Union service and one object in the assemblage originates from the Florida's only European port-of-call.

In conclusion, we feel that we have uncovered persuasive evidence indicating that the Pier C and Horns Brother's sites represent the remains, respectively, of the U.S.S. Cumberland and the C.S.S. Florida. Positive identification, however, will require a more extensive investigation of both wrecks. Plans for the excavation of a aeries of teat trenches, to be conducted by UAJV under NUMA's auspices in 1983 and 1984, are currently being formulated.

Bibliography

Besse, S.S. C.S. Ironclad Virginia, Mariner's Museum Publication No. 4, Newport News, Va. 1937.

Blakeman, Noel A., ed. Personal Recollections of the War of the Rebellion, 2nd series, New York and London, 1837.

Bradley, Chester D. "Four Important Historical Questions for Newport News and the Answers to Them." Unpublished, 1979.

Godden, Geoffrey A. Encyclopedia of British Pottera and Porcelain Marks, New York, 1964.

Johnson, Robert U. and C.C. Buel, eds. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Vol. 1, New York, 1884-87.

Jones, Virgil C. The Civil War at Sea: January 1861-March 1862, Vol. 1, New York, 1960.

Lord, Francis A. Civil War Collector's Encyclopedia, Secaucus, New Jersey, 1965.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series I, Vol. III, Washington, D.C., 1894-1922.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series I, Vol. III, Washington, D.C., 1894-1922.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series I, Vol. III, Washington, D.C., 1894-1922.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series I, Vol. III, Washington, D.C., 1894-1922.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series I, Vol. III, Washington, D.C., 1894-1922.

Owsley, Frank L., Jr. The C.S.S. Florida: Her Building and Operations, Philadelphia, 1965.

Ripley, Warren. Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War, New York, 1970.

U.S. Army Ordnance Manual, Philadelphia, 1862.

West, George B. When the Yankees Came: Civil War and Reconstruction on the Virginia Peninsula, Parke Rouse, Jr., Ed., Richmond, 1977.